Teacher attitudes toward change. 對改變教師的態度。
Waugh & Punch （1987）回顧了文學對變量的改變，並確定相關的教師接受能力的改變：
1.對教育的基本態度。
2。解決“恐惧和不確定性的改變，個人評價改變的成本，改變的實用性，對有關行動改變的期望和信念有所知覺。”
3.知覺學校的支援
一些研究人員強調，一個老師對改變的態度是取決於改變對他們個人的影響有多大。
Waugh and Punch (1987) reviewed the literature on change and identified variables related to teacher receptivity to change: basic attitudes toward education (discussed in the previous section),
resolution "of fears and uncertainties associated with change, personal cost appraisal for change, practicality of the [change], �perceived expectations and beliefs about the change in operation,"
and perceived school support (discussed later in this paper) (p. 237).
Several researchers emphasize that a teacher's attitude toward change is dependent upon how change affects them personally.
Hord, Rutherford, Huling-Austin, and Hall (1987) assert that it is critical to understand the point of view of those involved in the change effort. "A central and major premise of the [Concerns Based Adoption Model] is that the single most important factor in any change process is the people who will be most affected by the change" (Hord et al., 1987, p. 29).
Hord, Rutherford, Huling-Austin, and Hall(1987) 表示，“中央和大前提的[涉及基礎上採用型號] 是在改變過程中最重要單一的因素是誰在改變受到最大的影響。
From their studies of change, Hord et al. identify seven developmental stages of concern related to the introduction of innovations in schools. These stages provide insights into teachers' attitudes that contribute to their willingness to engage in the school improvement effort. The "self" stage of concern occurs during the early stages of the change effort, when teachers are primarily interested in the personal effects the change will have. Individuals progress (assuming that concerns at each level are addressed) through concerns about completing the task, concerns about the innovations' impact on students, and, finally, concerns about finding "even better ways to reach and teach students" (p. 32).
Welch (1989) reports that teachers assess advantages and disadvantages of collaborative consultation primarily in terms of how implementation will impact them personally, rather than how it might impact student growth. He states that "for innovative change in school settings to be meaningful, its effectiveness must be proven in terms of the personal and professional growth of all involved, not just student growth" (p. 538).
根據韋爾奇（1989年）報告說，教師對合作諮詢實施優點和缺點的評估認為將影響他們個人，而不是它如何影響學生的成長。
Practical changes are those that address salient needs, that fit well with the teachers' situation, that are focused, and that include concrete how-to-do-it possibilities (Fullan, 1991). Feedback, especially about the positive results of one's efforts, is a large factor in teachers' commitment to change. Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone (1984), found that incentives (defined as any source of gratification or deprivation) play a critical role in the change process. Those involved in school improvement efforts must believe that the needs being addressed are important and that they are meeting those needs (Huberman & Miles, 1984). Having some success, in a tangible way, is a critical incentive during implementation (Fullan, 1991).
Deal and Kennedy (1982) suggest that change should be thought of as skill-building and training as part of the change process. They believe that even if people understand and accept a change, a major impediment to successful change is lack of the skills and ability to carry out the new plan. "In school improvement efforts, leaders must take the time to help people in schools, particularly teachers, genuinely understand the importance of adopting a new program, attending in-service training, and implementing a particular program" (Krueger & Parish, 1982, p. 136).
Deal and Kennedy （1982）建議改變應被認為是改變的過程中技能建設和培訓的一部分 。他們認為，即使人們理解和接受改變，改變的主要障礙是缺乏成功的技能和能力進行新的計劃。
然後呢！“在學校改進的努力中，領導者必須花時間來幫助在學校的人，特別是教師， 真正了解一項新方案通過的重要性，參加在職培訓，並實施特別計劃“
"[Teachers] need to know whether there is sufficient knowledge available to make smaller changes that fall short of a complete redesign�[and] what, [if any], common markers characterize those schools, programs and classrooms that are successfully serving at-risk students" (Cuban, 1989, p. 799). How to determine who is using the new program and in what form the program is being used is explored in the work of Hord et al. (1987). Misdirected change may result in confusion for students.
Student attitudes toward change. 學生對改變的看法。
Fullan (1991) proposes four images that represent the range of student attitudes toward change. These attitudes are indifference, confusion, temporary escape from boredom, and heightened interest and engagement with learning and school.
富蘭（Fullan）1991提出了四個學生對改變的態度的現象。這些態度有冷漠，混亂，暫時擺脫無聊及更加關心和參與學習和學校。
"Indifference is closely tied to the claim that the more things change in education, the more they remain the same�For [many students] the main benefit of the school is the opportunity it provides to interact with close friends on a daily basis" (p. 181). Misdirected change may result in confusion for students. If programs and policies are unclear to teachers and administrators, it is not unreasonable to assume that they will result in "confusion on the part of students" (Fullan, 1991, p. 183).
Fullan (1991) reports that pupils' interpretations of their traditional roles in the classroom can impede change. Any innovation that requires students to do something new will succeed or fail based on students' actual participation. Students will participate, according to Fullan, if they understand, have the necessary skills, and are motivated to try what is expected. The temporary escape pattern of response occurs when students view innovations as only a change of pace in the routine and boredom of schooling. Finally, a student response of heightened interest and engagement is "central to any school improvement effort" (Fullan, 1991, p. 183).
富蘭（1991）報告說，學生解釋他們在課堂上的傳統角色會阻碍改變。根據學生的實際參與，任何創新，要求學生做一些新的東西一定會成功或失敗。學生將參加，根據富蘭，如果他們了解，掌握技能的必要， 並積極地嘗試什麼的期望。臨時逃避的類型的發生是，學生只是把改變當成日常的慣例和無聊的學校教育。最後，學生更加關心和參與的反應是，“關注學校任何改善的努力”
Community attitudes toward change.
"Schools are generally responsive to constituent groups. This means that people outside schools will have influence on the type of new programs that may be introduced" (Krueger & Parish, 1982, p. 134). Change efforts fail if the community does not provide ongoing encouragement, support and resources (Gauthier, 1983). Schools are vulnerable to pressures for change from external groups because they must try to satisfy what their constituents believe is proper for schools (Cuban, 1990).
社會 對改變的態度，
“學校一般都響應組成團體。這個意思是學校之外人的們將會影響學校新的計劃類型推出。改變的努力將會失敗，如果社會不提供持续不斷的鼓勵，支持和資源。學校很容易受到來自外部團體的壓力因為他們必須設法滿足他們（外部團體）所相信的什麼對學校是正確的。
“學校一般都響應組成團體。這個意思是學校之外人的們將會影響學校新的計劃類型推出。改變的努力將會失敗，如果社會不提供持续不斷的鼓勵，支持和資源。學校很容易受到來自外部團體的壓力因為他們必須設法滿足他們（外部團體）所相信的什麼對學校是正確的。
Various constituencies want various things, all for less money. Many citizens, because they have no children in the schools, apparently feel they need not be concerned about the quality of education (Patterson, Purkey, & Parker, 1986). Schools, however, "have great difficulty in becoming self-renewing without support from their states and local districts and especially from their surrounding constituencies" (Goodlad, 1984, p. 31).
According to Fullan (1991), communities can take one or a combination of three actions in response to school change: put pressure on district administrators to change, oppose specific innovations, or do nothing.
Gold and Miles (1981, cited in Fullan, 1991) give an example of what happens when a community was not involved in the adoption of "open education." With teachers unable to explain why they were adopting this innovation, concern increased and parents put an end to the innovation.
School boards play a role in change efforts, yet are often overlooked, according to Fullan (1991). School boards can indirectly affect implementation by hiring or firing reform-oriented superintendents. In their investigation of the role of school boards in successful districts in ten districts in British Columbia, LaRocque & Coleman (1989, cited in Fullan, 1991) found that in situations where the school board and the district are actively working together, substantial improvements can be achieved, compared to boards that remain uninvolved or have many conflicts.
Additional Factors That Influence Attitudes Toward Change Burnout.
其它影響改變的因素。
Burnout, defined by Sarason (1982) as adaptation to overload, stress, and the perception that conditions are not likely to change, can cause several negative factors that impact school improvement efforts. These include:
如倦怠，定義為 Sarason（1982）是對不想改變而產生的負荷，壓力。這個會對學校的進步造成幾個負面的影響。-負面的影響如下請參考下文！！—
loss of concern for the client and a tendency to treat clients in a detached, mechanical fashion; increasing discouragement, pessimism, and fatalism about one's work; decline in motivation, effort, and involvement in work; apathy; negativism; frequent irritability and anger with clients and colleagues; preoccupation with one's own comfort and welfare on the job; a tendency to rationalize failure by blaming the clients or 'the system'; resistance to change; growing rigidity; and loss of creativity. (Sarason, 1982, p. 203)
These attitudes will impact change efforts and at-risk students who tend to be more sensitive to the context of the school.
The legacy of prior change. 初期改變的後遺症。
The legacy of prior change projects, by its influence on teacher attitudes, values, and perceptions, may act as either a barrier to or a facilitator of change. Cynicism and apathy may reflect negative experiences and produce teachers who are unwilling to proceed regardless of the content or quality of the program (Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984; Fullan, 1991). Even more disturbing, according to Deal (1990), is the impact of constant change on the culture of schools and the attitudes of educators.
Cuban (1988) states that most reforms fail because of flawed implementation. Teachers and administrators see minimal gains and much loss in changes that are proposed by those unfamiliar with the classroom as a work place. "Magic bullet" type programs, isolated from the rest of the school and intended to spread change throughout the school at once, tend to be irrelevant, at best (Beer, Eisenstat, & Spector, 1990). "At their worst, they actually inhibit change. By promoting skepticism and cynicism, [these types] of programmatic change can inoculate [schools] against the real thing" (p. 72).
Implications 最後的結果是改變不會被教師接受，因為與根深蒂固的傳統發生衝突。
The difficulty associated with facilitating change in people's values, attitudes, and behavior is "grossly underplayed and often ignored" (Waugh & Punch, 1987, p. 244). The result is the likelihood that innovations will not be well received by teachers due to conflict with the firmly entrenched traditions (Waugh & Punch, 1987). Purkey and Smith (1983) propose that change in schools means changing attitudes, norms, beliefs, and values associated with the school culture. In order to change attitudes it is important to identify beliefs and feelings. "If the belief system of individuals within a culture is altered, the likelihood of behavioral change is enhanced" (Welch, 1989, p. 538).
The internally held mental models of school and the beliefs of teachers regarding schooling, students, and change impact the behavior of teachers toward students, especially those at risk, as well as toward school improvement. This is particularly important because, as defined at the beginning of this paper, it is the interplay between the characteristics of the student and the context of school that defines a student as at risk. Identifying and confronting beliefs that prohibit students from achieving their potential are vital components of school improvement efforts.
Resolving fears and anxiety created by change is a major task for those leading school improvement. Taking time to ensure that the reasons for the change, the practicality of this program for the specific problem being addressed, and the philosophical basis for the effort are well understood by everyone involved will enhance the likelihood of lasting implementation.
Cultural Norms 文化規範
人的態度和信念會影響學校的建立和改變，這些規範是學校內在和外在的態度和信念經過長時間影響的
Just as the attitudes and beliefs of persons both inside and outside the school building may facilitate or impede change, the norms, or informal rules that govern behavior exert influence on change efforts.
These norms are developed over time and are influenced by the attitudes and beliefs of those inside and outside the school. In turn, the norms define expectations regarding how things are to be done. This exerts an influence on beliefs and attitudes and the relationships of persons.
Internalization（內部化） of the culture. 文化的內部化
由於文化規範影響學校的改善，在某種程度上同樣的對個別工作人員的內部化，產生文化影響。 由於文化規範影響學校的改善，在某種程度上同樣的對個別工作人員的內部化，產生文化影
Because of the impact of cultural norms on school improvement, the extent to which individual staff members internalize that culture affects improvement efforts as well. Schein (1985) explains that "every organization is concerned about the degree to which people at all levels 'fit' into it" (p. 42). Those new to the organization must learn the culture or suffer consequences, such as the feeling of alienation. If, on the other hand, the employee is "oversocialized", "the result is total conformity, leading to the inability on the part of the organization to be innovative" (Schein, 1985, p. 42).
Schein (1985) delineates the elements that affect the degree to which culture is internalized.